Keywords: Gender , exclusion, underrepresentation , management, discrimination
Field of research: Human Resource Management
Introduction
Higher education is recognized as a capital investment and important for social and economic development. Higher education means all courses, curricula,texts institutes and faculty involved in teaching students beyond the intermediate level. Investment on higher education can be justified on grounds of social and economic impact. The existing system of higher education comprises of number of interlocking instituitions. These include the federal and provincial ministries of education and their attached departments, offices of the chancellor of public universities, HEC and various universities and colleges.. University management board comprises of number of vc, the registrar and deans as executive body. President hold powerful position, he appoints vicechancellor, member of syndicate and deans. Syndicate is the supreme governing and legislative body of the university. The chancellor is the chairman of syndicate. VC is the chief academic and administrative officer of the university. Registrar enforce academic and administrative policies as well as prepare instituitional reports. (www.hec.gov.pk)
This study is motivated by UNESCO study on Women in higher Education management in commonwealth universities in 1993. This study revealed that women are in minority in administrative positions and this prompted interest to investigate the obstacle that cause underrepresentation of women in management. The problem may be that women have to face obstacles in their career path. So that they are not desirable to do job at administrative positions. Domestic responsibilities are one of the obstacles in the way of women’s administrative positions. The ratio of Women in academic position is encouraging but low in administrative positions. Access to higher education remains a problem for women in many countries. Only 27% women reach tertiary level education and women are still long way from participating in same footing as men. [8]. Access to higher education is accompanies by underrepresentation of women in traditional female studies[2]. Mostly the women adopt the professions of teaching and health. But their ratio in the management of these departments is low. Social and cultural barriers prevent women to take part in managerial positions.
Objectives of Study
To analyze the enrollment of men and women in public sector universities of Pakistan
1) To analyze the enrollment of men and women in private sector universities of Pakistan
2) To analyze the gender representation in management of universities
Literature Review
ILO [4] identified that one of the way to break the glass ceiling and improve women’s opportunities in the labor market is to develop gender-sensitive human resource strategies, including networking, career tracking mentoring and succession planning.
Unbiased recruitment and promotion procedures and programs that allow a better balance between work and family are vital for attracting skilled professional women. UN[7] consider equity and equality in access of girls and women to relevant and development directed education and training sensitive to their special needs has been ensured to create an enabling environment for the development of their potential including the eradication of illiteracy among adolescent and young women.
GOP[3] focused on the issue of greater focus on technical, vocational and professional education, expanding enrollment in higher education. Now enrollment in tertiary education is 2.5%.
UNESCO[9] indicated that across the common wealth the percentage of women employed as full time academic staff ranges from 9.5% in Ghana to just over 50% in Jamaica. The commonwealth average is just 24%.The found no discernible difference to be seen between the developed countries of the commonwealth and low income countries. In the administrative management positions women are increasingly disadvantaged as they move up the occupational ladder. Women are still underrepresented among full-time staff in both the academic and administrative hierarchies of commonwealth universities due to person-centered and structure centered and culture centered.
Dines [2] indicates that Women professors are a minority group and women vice chancellors and presidents are still a rarity.
Al-Lamki[5] indicate that some of the primary resisting forces to women in management related to cultural and traditional values coupled with traditional stereotypes on the status and role of women, other resisting forces to women in management include limited opportunities in higher education, discriminatory appointment and promotion policies, attitude of male bosses and male dominated domain.
Singh[7] finds that science, mathematics and technological disciplines were largely the domain of men. The 2000 survey revealed that women were still severely under represented at all upper level of academic and administrative hierarchies of commonwealth universities. Overall only 22.6% women employed at this level. Top management positions continues to be the domain of men. Women’s performance in senior academic positions ranging from professors to associate professors, readers, principle lecturers to senior lecturers was better than that of women in senior administrative positions.The poor representation of women in managerial and academic positions may reflect the unwillingness of top management to appoint women to these positions or may be unwillingness of women.
UN [8] recognized the illiteracy rate of women as an impediment to the advancement of women. It is noted that gender gap in education widened with increasing level of education. The report advocated compulsory primary education for girls increase budget allocations for female education, increase allocation for education in national and provincial budgets, partnership between GO and NGOs, and increase advocacy for women’s education as strategic parties and actions for future”.
Singh[7 ] finds that science, mathematics and technological disciplines were largely the domain of men. The 2000 survey revealed that women are continue to be under represented at all top level of academic and administrative rankings of commonwealth universities. “Overall only 22.6% women employed at this level”. A top management position is still to be hold of men. Women’s performance in senior academic positions ranging from professors to associate professors, readers, principle lecturers to senior lecturers was well than that of women in senior managerial ranks.
The women’s low number in administrative and academic ranks may imitate the inclination of top administration to employ women to these positions or may be the lack of interest by women. The process of administrative decision-making and nomination is fixed and fair at lower level but not for the selection of senior managers Amondi[1] indicated the personal, structural and societal obstacles to women seeking top educational management positions. The strongest barriers are institutional followed by socio-cultural while the individual barriers were least. No individual factor was found to have influence on career progression of women academics.
Methodology
The secondary data was used by obtaining and analyzing through percentage, tabulation and graphs. Higher education is recognized as a capital investment and important for social and economic development. Higher education means all courses, curricula,texts institutes and faculty involved in teaching students beyond the intermediate level. Investment on higher education can be justified on grounds of social and economic impact. The existing system of higher education comprises of number of interlocking instituitions. These include the federal and provincial ministries of education and their attached departments, offices of the chancellor of public universities, HEC and various universities and colleges.. University management board comprises of number of vc, the registrar and deans as executive body. President hold powerful position, he appoints vicechancellor, member of syndicate and deans. Syndicate is the supreme governing and legislative body of the university. The chancellor is the chairman of syndicate. VC is the chief academic and administrative officer of the university. Registrar enforce academic and administrative policies as well as prepare instituitional reports. (www.hec.gov.pk)
Number of Universities and DAI (Public/Private)
In Pakistan as in 2003-04 there are 47 universities in public sector out of which only 3 for women.while private universities are 31 out of which one for women.
And number of public sector universities increased in 2005-06 as 49 out of which 4 for women and in private sector the number of universities increased to 36 out of which one for women.The total 17 universities in Islamabad and 3 universities in Rawalpindi and 3 universities in AJ & K.
Table- 1 Gender Wise Enrolment at Universities/DAI (including Consistent Colleges) by Level of Degree duringthe period 2001-04The table shows that in 2001-02 enrollments at bachelor level, the percentage of female is 36.81% and male enrollment is 63.18%. In 2002-03 the percentage of female is 38.06 andPercentage of male is 61.39.In 2003- 04 the percentage of male is 56.49% and female is 43.50%. As in first two years the enrollment shows little increasing trend while in 2003-04 the enrollment of female increased and enrollment of male decreased.
At the masters Level, In the year 2002-03 enrollment of female 59.9% increased as compare to 2001-02 38.5% and male enrollment decreased from (61.4% )to 40%. While in 2003-04 the Female enrollment rate decreased (40.29%) as compare to 2002-03 and male enrollment Increased 59% as compare to 2002-03 (40%). At M.Phil.level the enrollment rate of male is 66% and female rate is 33.9% in 2001-02.
In the year 2002-03 the enrollment rate of male decreased as 65% and female enrollment rate increased 34.9% while in year 2003-04 the enrollment rate of female increased and reach 36.8% and rate of male decreased as 63.16%.
At PhD level in 2001-02 the female enrollment is 22% as compare to male is 77.9%, in 2002-03 female enrollment is 24.5% and male is 75.4%.respectively. In 2003-04 enrollment is 27.9% and male enrollment is 72%. The analysis of these three years Shows that although male’s enrollment is higher than female but female enrollment has increasing trend and increasing gradually but male enrollment has decreasing trend.
Table-2 Gender wise enrolment at Universities/ DAI (including constituent colleges) by area during the period 2001-2004The above table shows the gender wise enrollment in all provinces including AJ&K.In 2001-02 In Federal enrollment of female is43.6%( 48160) and enrollment of men are 56.35% (62184).
In 2002-03 the enrollment of female is 45.29% and male enrollment is 54.71%.Tn 2003-04 enrollment of female is 49.9%(97893) and male is 50.1%(97927).In AJ&K Enrollment of women are 516 as compare to 1111 of male. In 2003-04 enrollment of female are 708 as compare to male as 1676.
The total enrollment in 2001-02 is 276274 out of which enrollment of male is 63.16% and female enrollment is36.84%. In the year 2002-03 male enrollment is 61.39% and female enrollment is 38.61% and in 2003-04 enrollment of female is 42.22% and male is 57.7%. Overall the enrollment of female has been lower than male. But female enrollment rate has increasing trend while male enrollment rate has decreasing trends.
Table-3 Gender wise enrolment at public and private sector universities/DAI2001-04The above table shows the enrollment of male and female in public and private higher education institutions. In year 2001-02 in public institutions the enrollment of male is141569 and female is 90832. In private institutes/universities male enrollment is 32935 and female enrollment is 10938.
In the 2003-04 in public sector universities/ institutions male enrollment is 199533 and female enrollment is 162575. In both public and private the enrollment of female and male has increased in these three years.
Share of universities in Enrollment
The share of public and private universities intotal enrolment is given below.
Table 4 Share Percent of public and private sector universities/DAIs in total enrollment, excluding distance learning universities classified by areaFaculty of Universities in Pakistan
Approximately out of 7000 faculty members in universities, only 1700 have PhD degree.Currently there are 52 universities/DAI in public sector in which male enrollment is 222352 and female enrollment is 170580 in graduate and postgraduate level, while 47 private sector universities/DAI in which male enrollment is 19010 and female enrollment is 7247. Although enrollment of girls is not encouraging but achievements are more than boys. (HEC)
International commitments on Education
Higher education plays an important role in sustainable development. So many international commitments have been done to increase and improve the women’s participation in higher education suchas,
- The Universal Declaration on Human Rights,1948
- The Convention against Discrimination in Education, 1960
- The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 1979.
The 4th World Conference on Women (Beijing, 1995) merits special attention for its role as a watershed in the history of women's social empowerment and leadership:
- Firstly, it confirmed that the entire gender issue has gained worldwide attention as a crucial component in the development process; with this recognition, it may be possible to redress the inequalities more effectively:
- Secondly, and compared with earlier conferences, it resulted in more concrete recommendations to help ensure that women take their full place in the world of the 21st century.
Many of the key problems faced by women are identified in the Beijing Declaration remain unsolved:
- Persistent poverty
- Inequality of access to education, health and welfare
- Violence
- Impact of armed conflicts
- Absence from decision-making in the economic sector
- Unequal participation in the power structures of society
- Insufficient mechanisms to promote the advancement of women
- Inadequate recognition of women's rights
- Failure to recognize women's contribution to society
- Insufficient recognition of their contribution to environmental protection and management.
These problems impede the personal and social empowerment of women, and, consequently, they hinder their ability to emerge as effective leaders at every level of daily life.This link to the resolutions and recommendations of major UN conferences and initiates which emphasize the importance of the gender dimension in the resolution of global issues, The Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women, 1985:
- The report on the World Decade for Cultural Development, 1988-1997
- The - the United Nations World Conference on Education for All, Jomtien, 1990
- The Conference on Population and Development, Cairo, 1994
- The World Summit for Social Development, Copenhagen 1995
- Habitat II, Istanbul, 1996
- The World Food Summit, Rome 1996
- The United Nations Decade on Education for Human Rights 1995-2004
- 5th International Conference on Adult Education.
Number of students produced at different level
The number of students produced at different level of tertiary education by public and private universities/DAIs has been increasing. The total of 91533, 107499 and 118056 students was produced during 2001-02, 2002-03 and 2003-04 respectively. The numbers of students produced by level of degree are in given table below.
Table-5 Number of Students produced by level of degree2001-04The number of students produced by the level degree, in the given table in 2001-02, the total students in bachelor degree are, 57249 out of which 25535 are female and 31714 are male. In2002-03 total of 70615 women bachelor degree are 33372 and male 37243. As compare to 2003-04 the total of 82064 bachelor degree produced out of which women are greater than men as 41714 are women and 40350 are women. In Master degree in 2001-02 out of 31483 the women are 12305 and men 19178 greater than women.
In 2002-03 the total of 33608 women are13729 and men are 19879 are more than women and in 2003-04 out of 32033 the women are 13105 and men are18928. The ratio of women in MPhil, PhD and PGD level are also lower than men. So overall in 2001-02 out of 91533 women are 42.34% degree holder while men are 57.6%.In 2002-03 out of 107499 women are 44.8% and men are 55.1%. in 2003-04 the total students produced are 118056 out of which women are 47.6% and men are 52.3%. The ratio of women in MPhil and PhD are much lower than men.
Table-6 Number of Students produced by level of public and private sector during 2001-04The above tables show the number of students produced by level of degree both in public and private institutions. In 2001-02 the number of female degree holder are 38761 and male is 52772. Overall the increasing ratio of female is more than male.
According to area the number of male and female students, it is seen that Federal female students are 237562 and male 27219 in 2001-02 while in 2002-03 the numbers are 28700 are female and 30313 are male in Federal area while in AJ&K female are 161 and male are 359 in 2001-02 and 240 female and 491 male are in 2002-03 and 2003-04 167 female and 422 are male respectively in AJ&K. The number of female students is increasing while male students are decreasing.
Table-8 Teacher in Educational Institutions by kind, Level and SexSource; (1) Central Bureau of Education website
(2) Provincial bureau of statistics
(3) Academy of Education planning and management
The table 2.20 shows the ratio of female in Art & Science colleges, professional colleges and universities. In art & science colleges in 1995-96 the percentage of female is 36.6% and male is 63.31% and in 2004-05 the percentage of female is 51.5% and male is 48.45%. In professional colleges in 1995-96 the percentage of female teachers are 20.5% and male percentage is 79.4% and in 2004-05 the percentage of female is 20.56% and male is 79.4% respectively.
In universities in 1995-96 the percentage of female teachers are 17.1% and male teachers are 82.8% while in 2004-05 the percentage of female increased (as compare to 1995-96) 27.5% and percentage of male teachers reached 72.4% decrease as compare to 1995-96. According to the Lund survey conducted by commonwealth higher education management (Lund 1998) distribution of men and women by occupational category in commonwealth universities, 1997 are below,
Table-9 Professors by countryAccording to the survey the percentage of women professors in Bangladesh is 10.4% while 10.55 in India and 8.5% in Pakistan lower than Bangladesh and India.
Table-10 Associate professors/readers/principal lecturerThe percentage of women associate professors are 19.9% in Bangladesh, 20.3% in India and 8.65 in Pakistan. The percentage of women associate professors in Pakistan is lower than other two countries.
Table-11 Lecturers by countryThe percentage of women lectures in Bangladesh is 23.7% while 36.8% in India and only 16% in Pakistan.
Table-12 Gender representation among Universities in PakistanWomen account half the world’s population, perform two thirds of the hour worked receive one tenth of the world’s income and have one hundredth of the world’s prosperity in their name (commonwealth Secretariate).
The percentage of women lectures in Bangladesh is 23.7% while 36.8% in India and only 16% in Pakistan. There is considerable disparity between status of women and men in Pakistan. But recently women’s status has improved marginally. But disparities continue without any significant change. The Beijing report also noted that Pakistani women continued to face patriarchal structure. According to Human Development report 1998 Pakistan ranks 138 on a list of 163 countries on HDI. The literacy rate of women generally is 24% as compared to 49% for males. And among the illiterate population 60% are women. The 70% Girls are without basic education opportunities.
In Pakistan literacy rate is 24% as compared to 38% in India and 78% in Srilanka.Socio-cultural norms and religious interpretation are creating insecurity for the rights of women. The laws which exist are not implemented. Women are still continued to face gender basis. These socio-cultural norms prescribe a different roles and responsibilities for women. All these factors limited the women’s access to education, health, decision–making and control over the resources.
Discussions/conclusion
The main objective of the research is to overview the existing situation of men and women in universities. Ours a male dominated society. Women are neglected in each sphere of life. The world of men and women are different in term of education, employment and health. The findings show that women face discrimination in getting professional degree to get higher position.
The findings show that there is a gender gapin enrollment and managerial positions in universities. The studies showed number of barriers which discriminate against women such as social, organizational as well as personal. There is a need of affirmative action to reduce this gender disparity.Higher education commission determines the policies concerning selection and promotion in academic employment. Higher education commission (HEC) has taken measures to make the recruitment& selection as well as promotion policy fair .Academic selection and promotion policies of public sector universities are similar.
Promotion system largely depends upon the publication record so due to lack of publication women are not promoted because domestic responsibilities limited the women’s research activities.All these barriers are interrelated and having correlation among variables such as socio-cultural barriers are influencing structural barriers and individual barriers are also due to socio-cultural barriers. All these factors socio-cultural, structural and individual barriers hinder women’s representation at all levels. The main reason of this bias against women is the society because individual and organizations are a part of a society. They perform in a manner they are socialized. Socio-cultural factors are the major reason of the underrepresentation of women in every sphere of life.
ReferencesAmondi, O.(2011).Representation of women in top management in leadership positions in Kenya, Journal of advancing women in leadership 31, 51-68.
E. (1993). Women in higher Education management”, Paris UNESCO Commonwealth Secretariat.
Government of Pakistan. (2006). Pakistan Education Statistics 2005 , Academy of Education planning and Management, Ministry of education.
ILO.(2004). Tripartite on breaking through glass ceiling: women in management. ILO Geneva.
Lamki, S. (1999). “A perspective on Omani Women In Management in The Sultanate of Oman”, AWL Journal, vol2, No.2.
Lund, H. (1998). A Single Sex Profession? Female Staff numbers in commonwealth universities. Commonwealth Higher education Management service London.
Singh, J . (2003). Prioritizing gender equality in higher education management, Part Three Tertiary Education, Commonwealth Education Partnerships.
UN. (1995). The BeijingDeclaration and Platform for Action Document”, adopted by the 4th World Conference on Women.
UNESCO. (1993). Women in Higher Education Management, commonwealth secretariat. www.hec.gov.pk
